宗教心理學論文：商業模式的轉變
從1880年到1920年這段時間被稱為大商業時期。第一個工業生產，即工廠生產，是利用一定的商業思想，專註於生產單一的同質產品(Sunkel, 1972)。這在後來的時間裏發生了變化。經營業務的模式發生了轉變。保持不變的一個關鍵變量是對金融的控制。增加財政資源的行為越來越多。對財政資源的這種需要是為了維持生產和分配過程(Soja, 1980)。
商業運作的每一個方面都依賴於經濟交易。為了降低交易成本，開發了許多理論模型。錢德勒提出理論，通過橫向整合和引入一定的縱向整合來確保交易成本的降低(Mizruchi & Fein, 1999)。威廉姆森理論揭示了職能內部化對降低成本的重要性(Wade, 1990)。基於資源的理論是為了管理外部事件中的不確定性而發展起來的。金融在決定人民的社會文化價值觀方面起著重要的作用(Wade, 1990)。人們的經濟行為是其社會文化價值觀的直接結果。交易成本是財務管理的關鍵。交易成本用於保護相關利益相關者的利益，並確保業務運作的順利進行。合同義務和受托責任是在復雜的業務操作之後發展起來的，以保護當事人的利益和保護資產。對這些活動進行盡職調查、審計、審查和監控是很重要的(Mizruchi & Fein, 1999)。
企業的規模有了很大的增長，生產也多樣化了。這些工廠生產的產品不止一種。單一所有制是早期工業革命的顯著特征之一(Sunkel, 1972)。這在大生意期間改變了。綜合經營與公司治理的發展正是在這一時期開始的。早期的工業有人力資源司、生產、分配和財政。這個U模型被M層次模型所取代(Sunkel, 1972)。基於市場事件的復雜官僚模型取代了簡單的管理。技術的創新和發展催生了新型的技術產業。在這一時期，出現了許多跨國公司。庫存管理和供應鏈管理的發展是為了迎合更廣泛的消費者。在這個時代，生產線上的橫向、縱向一體化和最佳實踐的開發已經成為優先事項(Wade, 1990)。
股市發展是這一時期另一個突出的重要特征。股票市場的發展是技術進步的結果。為了發展這項技術，又需要財政資源。鐵路和電報的發展又需要財政資源和管理(Wade, 1990)。為了發展通訊和技術，需要大量的財政資源。
宗教心理學論文：商業模式的轉變
The period of time from 1880 to 1920 is known as the big business period. First industrial production i.e. factory production was focused on production of a single homogenous product by using certain business ideology (Sunkel, 1972). This had changed in the subsequent times. There was a paradigm shift of conducting business operation. One key variable that remained the same was control of finance. There was a rising deed for increase in financial resources. This need for financial resources was to maintain production and distribution process (Soja, 1980).
Every aspect of the business operations was dependent on economic transactions. Many theoretical models were developed to reduce transactional costs involved. Chandler developed theory to ensure lowering of the transactional costs by horizontal integration and introducing certain vertical integration (Mizruchi & Fein, 1999). Williamson theory promulgated the importance of internalization of functions to reduce costs (Wade, 1990). Resource based theory was developed to manage uncertainty in the external events. Finance plays an important role in determining the socio-cultural values of the people (Wade, 1990). Economic behavior of the people is a direct result of their social and cultural values. Transaction cost was the key to financial management. Transactions costs are used to protect the interest of the stakeholders involved and to ensure smooth functioning of the business operations. Contractual obligations and fiduciary responsibilities were developed subsequent to complex business operations to protect the interest of the parties and secure assets. Due diligence, auditing, reviewing and monitoring of these activities are important (Mizruchi & Fein, 1999).
The size of the businesses had grown considerably and there was diversification in production. More than one product was produced in the factories. Single ownership was one of the distinctive features of early industrial revolution (Sunkel, 1972). This was changed during the big business. The development of integrated business and corporate governance had its inception during this time period. Early industries had a human resources division, production, distribution and finance. This U model was replaced with M model of hierarchy (Sunkel, 1972). Complex bureaucratic models that were dynamics based on market events replaced simple management. Innovation and development in technology had given rise to the emergence of new kinds of technology industries. There were establishments of multinational companies during this era. Inventory management, and supply chain management was developed to cater to a wider range of consumers. Horizontal, vertical integration and development of best practices in production line had taken precedence in this era (Wade, 1990).
Stock market development was another key feature that had gained prominence during this era. Stock market development was due to technological changes. For the development of the technology there was again a need for financial resources. Financial resources and management was again required for the development of railways and telegraph (Wade, 1990). For the development of communication and technology, there was a need for huge financial resources.
